Shortly after noon on Oct. 21, 1805, HMS Revenge, a newly commissioned 74-gun British battleship, moved sluggishly in light breezes and a heavy swell. Across the horizon, 26 more ships under the command of Adm. Horatio Nelson sailed relentlessly toward 33 Franco-Spanish ships commanded by Adm. Pierre Villeneuve. England had spent years in a fierce and costly war of opposition to Revolutionary France and the ambitions of Napoleon. The two fleets would collide in an epic battle just off Cape Trafalgar near the Spanish port of Cádiz. The stakes were high. If the Franco-Spanish fleet won, Napoleon might finally be able to invade Britain. And if the Royal Navy triumphed, he would lose all hope of expanding his empire.

On board the Revenge, Lt. Lewis Hole turned the page in his logbook and took note of the typical conditions at sea—“Light Breezes and Clear.” Although his commander, Capt. Robert Moorsom, kept the official log of the ship’s activities, Hole and all young officers like him maintained logbooks as part of their training. Usually, Hole recorded the position of the ship, the

weather conditions—especially the wind—and any notable activities that occurred on board. This would be a busy day, however, and Hole had little time for details. Nonetheless, his laconic entry—now part of the Huntington’s rich holdings from the Napoleonic era—provides a backdrop to the Battle of Trafalgar and the death of its hero, Lord Nelson.

Lt. Hole had participated in the Battle of Copenhagen four years earlier, one of Nelson’s great victories, and was now serving with Nelson in what would be the last battle for both of them. On board the lead ship, HMS Victory, Lord Nelson had ample time to consider the innovative strategy that would assure an outcome worthy of his ship’s name. In the age of sail, naval tactics called for enemy fleets to form opposing lines before slowly approaching one another. The fleet that was upwind had the advantage since it could pick the timing of the clash. The battle would thus play out as a series of ship-to-ship actions. The fleet that captured the most ships or forced the enemy to flee would earn the victory. But unpredictable winds, fog, and currents—not to mention differences in sailing skill—could lead to indecisive outcomes.

Nelson sought a crushing strategy. Rather than forming his vessels into a single line for a ship-to-ship clash, he divided his fleet into two squadrons—one that he would lead in the Victory, the other led by Adm. Cuthbert Collingwood in the Royal Sovereign. The two squadrons would attack perpendicular to the Franco-Spanish fleet, thereby cutting it in two places. An attack to the middle and rear of the enemy fleet would render the lead ships helpless since they would be forced to reverse course in order to join the fray. The time needed to complete such a maneuver would all but remove them as a factor in the battle.

There were formidable risks in such a strategy. The Victory and Royal Sovereign would be subject to a brutal cannonade from multiple ships before they could bring their guns to bear. Nelson trusted that the Franco-Spanish ships, many of which had been penned up in Cádiz for some time, lacked the necessary gunnery skills to aim accurately in the heavy swell. The Royal Navy, on the other hand, took pride in its masterful skills after years of practice. The British ships could thus crash through and start doubling up on the enemy ships, confronting them from both sides.

Nelson’s plan would work best if the Franco-Spanish fleet were in a single-line formation. Unfortunately for Nelson, Adm. Villeneuve had steered south after leaving Cádiz and then changed his mind and turned north to face the British. As his fleet reversed course, the line split into separate squadrons. Ships overlapped one another, presenting a great danger to the British as they broke through and found themselves doubled up. But Nelson was committed to his strategy and had confidence in his ships, his men, and, above all, his gunnery.

Lt. Hole and the Revenge sailed in Collingwood’s squadron. Since the Revenge was new and fast, Collingwood ordered it to move up the line. As it came upon the enemy ships, Hole had time to record Nelson’s famous signal to the fleet, which was delivered through a series of flags flying from the Victory: “England expects every Man will do his Duty.” Then all he and his shipmates could do was wait as the Royal Sovereign, Collingwood’s flagship, took a pounding at 25 minutes after noon and then pushed its way through the line wreathed in smoke. One by one the other British ships crossed through. As the Revenge sailed into the melee 10 minutes behind its lead ship, it was surrounded by four 74-gun enemy ships—the Aigle, Achille, Indomptable, and San Justo—and the 112-gun Principe de Asturias. The Revenge drew heavy fire, losing the ability to steer as the rudder was shot away, and suffered 79 dead and wounded while keeping up a deadly cannonade against the enemy ships. Once free of this maelstrom, and aided by the Polyphemus and Dreadnought, the ship sailed into quieter waters to begin an extended period of repair. Of this hurricane of action, Hole notes only that the Revenge found itself at 4:45 p.m. with “4 French Ships and one Three Decker on us at once.” Then Hole is silent until he records the signal to take ships in tow at 5:30 p.m.

Nelson’s strategy had worked and English gunnery proved decisive, but he paid for his great victory with his life. Nineteen enemy ships were captured, one destroyed, and many others heavily damaged. What remained of the Franco-Spanish fleet crept into Cádiz; a number of ships were later captured while trying to leave. As was the custom, Hole took note of the weather and his ship’s activities before beginning a new page: “At noon Fresh Breezes… Clearing away the Wreck.”

Robert C. Ritchie is W. M. Keck Foundation Director of Research at The Huntington.